Introduction to Hinduism
© James Lochtefeld, Professor of Religion, Carthage College, 1998
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1. Overview (see below)
2. The Vedas (with selected hymns)
4. Selections from the Upanishads (Chandogya, Mandukya)
a. Further Readings Chandogya Upanishad
b. Further Readings: Isa Upanishad
c. Further Readings: Shvetashvatara Upanishad
5. The Law Texts (Dharmashastras)
e. Selections from the Kama Sutra
6. Bhakti and the Path of Devotion
7. The Bhagavad-Gita (Selections)
Overview
This brief introduction is meant to give you a context for our readings in Hinduism--first, the early readings from the Upanishads, then the texts and life stories for the three generally recognized Hindu religious paths, and some understanding of the general concerns and religious worldview that have remained relatively stable until this day. The Indian worldview described in sections A-F will also give you a context for the life and teaching of the Buddha, who was both influenced by and responding to the urgent religious questions of his time.
The nature of "Hinduism" is difficult to define, for it lacks many of the features we tend to associate with religion--it has no founder, no definitive scripture, no centralized authority, no single supreme god, and no creed of essential beliefs (and thus no heresy). The word "Hinduism" is itself a term made up by foreigners (in this case, the British) which until quite recently had no analogue in Indian languages. In its original meaning, the word "Hindu" refers to the people living in "Hind," which is what Greek and Muslim travelers called the Indian subcontinent. For most of its history the word "Hinduism" has been an umbrella term referring to ANY and ALL forms of religious belief and practice in the land of India, from the least sophisticated nature worship to the most highly developed ritual and philosophical systems. They are all called by the same name, but they share few (if any) common features.
What the different parts of the tradition do have is a history of evolution, a continuous process in which new religious forms arise from the older ones, but the older ones (usually) continue to exist. The salient metaphor for Indian religion is the banyan tree, which aside from normal upward spreading branches, also has branches which grow down, take root, and become trunks in their own right. An old banyan tree can be hundreds of feet in diameter, and it is often difficult to discern which one is the original trunk. In the same way, what we call Hinduism is the result of this history of expansion, diffusion, and change.
For much of its history, the real binding force in Indian culture has been its social structure, which has been as sharply defined as religious practice has been open. Traditional Indian society was sharply hierarchical, and to some extent this remains true today. In theory, society was divided into four groups (given here in descending order): the brahmins were scholars and religious technicians, the kshatriyas were warriors and rulers, the vaishyas were artisans and farmers, and the shudras served the others. Membership in a particular group came by being born into it, and nothing one did could change this. Society was seen as an organic whole, in which some parts had higher status than others, but where every part was necessary for the whole to function smoothly.
In actual practice, each of these four groups was split into hundreds of sub-groups, usually based on the group's hereditary occupation, and a group's relative status in a particular place was subject to all kinds of local variables. What this did mean was that every individual, as a member of a particular family and group, had a well-defined social role, and there was great stress on the individual's obligation to fulfill these social duties.
The other common thread has been the (generally accepted) belief in reincarnation, which is determined by one's karma (which literally means "action," but also includes words and thoughts). Good karma will bring a good rebirth, bad karma a bad rebirth; as one has been, so will one become. Karma is seen as a purely physical process, operating without any need for a divine overseer (just as we see no need for God to administer the law of gravity). The actions one performs, for good or for ill, become causes for future effects--some in this life (which is less problematic, since most of us believe in cause and effect), and some in future lives (more difficult to prove conclusively). Since the general tone of one's life is seen as more important than a few isolated acts, we might compare the idea of karma with the notion of a person's "character" (which also recognizes the psychological dimension, the way that we are shaped by our habitual ways of thinking and acting).
One can be reborn in any number of ways--good karma can lead to birth in heaven (as a god, since gods live in heaven), bad karma can lead to birth in hell, as an animal, or as a wandering spirit. ALL OF THESE STATES, BOTH GOOD AND BAD, ARE ULTIMATELY IMPERMANENT, AND THUS PROVIDE NO SURE REFUGE: the gods are enjoying the rewards from their past actions, but will be born elsewhere when their accumulated merit is exhausted; others are enduring punishment for their sins, but when this is done they will be reborn in happier circumstances. Any human birth is considered a great opportunity. Unlike animals, which are governed by instinct, human beings can make conscious decisions, yet the vicissitudes of earthly life (unlike heaven, which is always pleasant) serve as a warning to pay attention to spiritual life.
Although New Age proponents usually describe reincarnation as an opportunity, in the Indian context (Hindu, Buddhist, Jain, and Sikh) it has always been seen as a tremendous burden, and the ultimate goal of religious life has been to bring it to an end. THIS IS THE FUNDAMENTAL ASSUMPTION IN ALL INDIAN RELIGIOUS THOUGHT. Hindus, Buddhists, and Jains disagree on what happens after the "wheel of birth" has ended, but they are unanimous that halting it is the central religious problem. Keeping these general remarks in mind, I can now give you a Stunningly Brief Introduction to Hinduism.
On to Part 2: The Vedas (with Selected Hymns)