The Aryans and the Earliest Vedic Texts (Samhitas)
Edited/translated by James Lochtefeld, Professor of Religion, Carthage College, 1998
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Introduction: Because of its appropriation by the Third Reich (and echoed by neo-Nazi groups even today), the word "Aryan" now carries a pejorative tinge--the racial stereotype of the blond-haired, blue-eyed, flaxen-skinned superman. In its earliest use, however--and this is how we shall use it--the word "Aryan" is a LINGUISTIC category, a name for people speaking a certain type of language (and this, please note, makes no assumption about what the people speaking these languages looked like). About one hundred years ago, linguists noted striking resemblances between Sanskrit and many European languages, either in the words themselves (as in words for family relations) or (as with ancient Greek and Latin) in their actual grammatical forms.
Their assumption was that all these languages sprang from a common parent (which no longer exists, but on which linguists love to speculate) but slowly diverged as the groups of speakers lost contact with each other. Based on philological analysis, these folks theorized that the Aryan-language-speakers had come from somewhere around the Caspian Sea in central Asia. Some of them migrated west to Europe (where the only non-Aryan language is Basque) some went southwest to Turkey, and some went south to Iran, and from there to India (comparisons between the language changes in the Iranian and Indian religious texts show smaller degrees of difference, and thus more recent divergence).
The only source of information about the Aryans is their religious literature--the Iranian Avesta and the Sanskrit Veda. We do not have a shred of hard, material evidence, and these texts are our only window into their world. The texts have survived because they were transmitted orally (the Vedas were not written down until about 1400 CE), and even today there are people who can recite the entire Veda from memory. The word "Veda" literally means "knowledge," and for the Aryans those who knew the Vedas possessed sacred knowledge, which was a source of power. The Vedas themselves include many types of text, and within them we can clearly see the tradition changing and developing. Within the Vedas are four different KINDS of text: Samhitas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads.
The oldest type of text (in both content and archaic linguistic forms) are the 1,023 Samhitas, which are hymns of praise to the various Vedic gods, which for the most part were forces of nature personified: Indra was the storm-god, Varuna the Sky-god, Ushas the dawn, Soma the bestower of inspiration, and Agni was fire in all its manifestations--flame, lightning and sun. Of these deities, Indra and Agni were the most important--the former was the fearless, unconquerable warrior, while the latter, as the sacrificial fire which consumed the offerings, was the intermediary carrying these offerings to the other gods. Several of these hymns have been translated below, to convey a little idea of their flavor.
Rg. Veda 1.1, to Agni: As mentioned just above, Agni was both a deity and the sacrificial fire that conveyed the offerings to the other deities. As such, Agni was an essential intermediary between humans and the gods. As a way to symbolically show how Agni pervades the universe, the differing versions of the name in this hymn appear in all seven grammatical cases.
1. I pay homage to Agni, the household priest, the God and officiant of the sacrifice, the oblation-bearer, the giver of blessings.
2. May that Agni, extolled by past and present seers, convey the gods hither.
3. Through Agni may one day by day obtain wealth, prosperity, fame, and heroic sons.
4. O Agni, the sacrifice and rite which you encompass undoubtedly goes directly to the gods.
5. May the divine Agni, the oblation-bearer, who has the insight of a seer, is truthful, and widely renowned, come here with the gods.
6. O Agni, O Angiras, when you bestow prosperity on the pious, the true (merits) are yours alone.
7. Day by day we approach you with devotion, O Agni, illuminator of darkness, bearing homage to you.
8. Controller of the rites, the radiant guardian of cosmic order, thriving in your home,
9. O Agni, be for us as approachable as a father for a son, stay close to us for our well-being.
Rg Veda 1.32, to Indra: Indra is the prototypical warrior deity, and since 25% of the Vedic samhitas are devoted to him, it seems that the composers saw something of themselves in this rough and tumble warrior. Even now Indra is associated with storms and rain (the rainbow is called “Indra’s bow”), and thus operates in the intermediate region between the earth and the heavens. This hymn describes one of his best-known exploits—killing the serpent Vrtra (“obstacle”) and releasing the waters that Vrtra was holding back.
1. I proclaim the heroic deeds of Indra, the mace-bearer, performed in the primal time. He has slain the serpent and pierced a way for the waters, he has cleft through the mountain-breast.
2. He has slain the serpent reclining in the mountains, the divine smith Tvastr fashioned for him the whizzing mace. The flowing waters, bellowing like cows, swiftly descended to the sea.
3. Raging like a bull, he took the Soma, he drank three flagons of the pressed-out Soma. The Bounteous One (Indra) took up his mace and missiles, he slew that first-born of the serpents.
4. When you slew, O Indra, the first-born of the serpents, you destroyed as well the conjurors' magic powers. Engendering then the sun, sky, and dawn, at that time you truly had no rival.
5. With his monstrous lethal mace Indra slew the broad-shouldered Vrtra, the most resistant Vrtra. Like the limbs of a tree cut up by an axe, the serpent's body lies in pieces on the earth.
6. Though a drunken, unskilled warrior, he (Vrtra) challenged the great hero, the god who assails his enemies, striking powerfully. Indra's enemy could not withstand the blows of his (Indra's) weapons, he became faceless and was crushed.
7. Though handless and footless, he went to fight Indra, Indra smashed his back with the mace. Like an ox trying to contest with a bull, Vrtra, cut in pieces, lies scattered on the ground.
8. Lying split like a reed, the rising waters overflowed for
human beings; whatever Vrtra had obstructed by his power, henceforth the serpent lay at their feet.
9. She whose vital force was spent, she whose son was Vrtra, Indra brought down death upon her. The mother was above and the son below, the demoness lay like a cow with her calf.
10. Vrtra's body lay amidst the churning swirling timbers; the waters flow around the place where Vrtra, Indra's enemy, lies hidden in deep darkness.
11. With a serpent for a guardian, an aboriginal (dasa) for a spouse, the waters had stood blocked up, like the cows stolen by the Panis. When he slew Vrtra, Indra unstopped the blocked passage for the waters.
12. When Vrtra struck at you with his fangs, O Indra, you became as numerous as a horse's hairs, O first of the gods. You have won cows, you have won soma, O hero, you released the seven great rivers to freely flow.
13. Neither lightning nor thunder availed him, nor the hail and the clouds which he scattered; when Indra and the serpent did battle, the Beneficent One (Indra) vanquished the opponent.
14. Whom did you see to avenge the serpent, O Indra, who will bring the fear of death to your heart, that you crossed the ninety-nine rivers, as a frightened hawk traverses the sky?
15. The mighty Indra is ruler of the moving and the fixed, the wild and the tame. He verily governs as a king among men, encompassing them as the rim of a wheel the spokes.
Rg Veda 5.86, to Varuna: If Indra is associated with the “intermediate region” between the earth and sky, Varuna is associated with the high heavens, from which he watches down on those below. Varuna was seen as the guardian and conservator of truth, who punished liars by afflicting them with dropsy (a swelling of the soft tissues caused by retention of water). Varuna has a long history among the Indo-European peoples—he has a prominent place in the Avestha, and is mentioned in inscriptions as far afield as Turkey—but by the time of the Vedas he had been largely supplanted as the primary deity by Indra.
1. Wise indeed are those through the greatness of Him, who has divided the vastness which is heaven and earth. He propped up the lofty vault of heaven, and likewise the stars, and spread out the earth below.
2. And then I speak in my own heart, thinking when shall I be one with Varuna? What hymn of mine would he enjoy, free from anger, when shall I contentedly see his graciousness?
3. O Varuna, I question myself, desiring to see that sin, I go to question wise men as well. The seers all tell me the same thing--Varuna is angry with you.
4. What was this great offence, O Varuna, that you should wish to afflict your friend, the bard? Reveal it to me, O Autonomous
One, Difficult to Deceive! I would hasten to you for worship, to become free from sin.
5. Release us from the falsehoods of our ancestors, and from those we have committed ourselves. Release Vasistha, O King, as a thief steals cattle, like a calf unbound from its rope.
6. O Varuna, I did not willfully transgress, it was liquor, dice, anger, and stupidity. The grave offence follows upon the trivial, even sleep does not bring me peace.
7. May I swiftly, free from sin, serve the Bounteous One, the wild, shaking God. The Noble Lord enlightens the simple, may the Knowing God impel the wise to insight.
8. O Varuna, O Autonomous One! May this hymn be pleasing to you, may it rest in your heart. May we have welfare in our rest and our labors, may you always protect us with blessings.
Rg. Veda 7.89 (To Varuna)
1. O Varuna, O King, let me not go to the house of clay! Beneficent Ruler, have pity on me, be gracious!
2. When I walk I tremble, swollen like a rain cloud, O Mighty One. Beneficent Ruler, have pity on me, be gracious!
3. Weakness of will led me to transgress against you, O Pure and Wealthy One! Beneficent Ruler, have pity on me, be gracious!
4. Thirst assailed the singer, even when standing amidst the waters. Beneficent Ruler, have pity on me, be gracious!
5. Whatever offence we humans have committed against the divine beings, O Varuna, in whatever way we have unwittingly obstructed your divine rule (dharma), O Lord, let that not bring us to destruction!
Rg. Veda 10.108, to Sarama (Indra's Dog): In this hymn, Indra’s talking dog carries on a dialogue with a group called the Panis, describing to them how Indra will displace them and take their hidden cattle. This may refer to strife between various groups, but such inferences are highly speculative (even beyond the notion of a talking dog).
1. What is it you desire to obtain, O Sarama? The distant road is steep and difficult. With what idea, what resolution; how did you cross the roaring waters?
2. I come forth sent as Indra's messenger, O Panis, desiring your great treasures. A leap in fear aided me, thus I crossed the roaring waters.
3. Of what sort is Indra, O Sarama, what is his countenance, he for whom you come from afar as messenger? And if he should come we would give to him, he would be the master of our cows.
4. I do not know him as able to be deceived, he is the deceiver, he for whom I come from afar as messenger. The flowing waters do not cover him, the deep waters were struck down by Indra, and you will also be laid low, O Panis!
5. These cows you desire, O Sarama, they roam the skies at heaven's boundary, O Beautiful One. Who would give them to you without a fight? And verily, our weapons are sharp.
6. This stone-floored storehouse, O Sarama, brimming with horses, cows, and goods, the Panis, who are valiant protectors, will defend it. Be off! You have come to this place in vain.
7. If the Rshis should come here, drunk on Soma, or the Ayasyas, the Angiras, or the Group of Nine; they will divide up your pen of cattle, O Panis, you will throw up these words!
8. Even so you have come, O Sarama, oppressed by that divine power. Do not go back, O Beautiful One, we will make you a sister, we will share the cows with you.
9. I don't know brotherhood; and Indra and the awesome Angiras certainly do not know sisterhood. When I went they seemed to me desirous of cows. O Panis, go far from here!
10. Go away far from here, O Panis! Let the cows come forth, exchanged for world order (rta)! Indra and Soma, the Pressing-Stone and the Inspired Sages have found the hidden cattle!
Rg. Veda 10.119, the Soma-drinking Hymn: About 10% of the Vedic hymns are dedicated to Soma, which is both a deity and a vision-inducing beverage. Here Indra describes its effects first hand; the repeated word “kuwit” may have been intended to replicate a bird call.
1. Indeed my mind would give horses and cows. Kuwit! I have drunk much soma.
2. The draughts lifted me up like the buffeting winds. Kuwit! I have drunk much soma.
3. The draughts shook me as swift horses shake a chariot. Kuwit! I have drunk much soma.
4. The hymn came to me like a cow to its dear calf. Kuwit! I have drunk much soma.
5. Like a carpenter shaping the body of a chariot, with my heart I shape the verse. Kuwit! I have drunk much soma.
6. For me the five great races are not even as a mote in my eye. Kuwit! I have drunk much soma.
7. Both heaven and earth are not equal to my other wing. Kuwit! I have drunk much soma.
8. Now in greatness I surpass the heavens and this great earth. Kuwit! I have drunk much soma.
9. Verily I would move around this earth, now here, now there. Kuwit! I have drunk much soma.
10. Verily I would bat this earth around, now here, now there. Kuwit! I have drunk much soma.
11. My one wing is in the sky, the other one drags (on the earth) below. Kuwit! I have drunk much soma.
12. I am great among the great, I rise up among the clouds. Kuwit! I have drunk much soma.
13. I am the oblation-bearer, I go eagerly to the gods with the oblation. Kuwit! I have drunk much soma.