East Asian Religion
The two most important forms of religious thought in classical China were Confucianism and Taoism, whose opposing teachings have both shaped the Chinese worldview. Although these teachings have very different emphases, the Chinese have not seen them as mutually exclusive, but as each containing valuable but differing sorts of insights. The salient image for understanding their relationship is the yin/yang symbol, whose dark and light halves represent the polar opposites that make up the world (day and night, man and woman, summer and winter, etc.). The entire yin/yang symbol is made up from the balance between both the light and the dark halves, and in most cases neither half is seen as better than than other....they are simply opposites). In the same way Confucianism (which reflects yang tendencies stressing activity, conscious self-development, familial/community responsibility, and strong government) and Taoism (which reflects yin tendencies stressing quietude, naturalism and noninterference in the nature of things) were both seen as giving people valuable life lessons. Neither way of thought should be considered a "church" demanding exclusive loyalty from its followers, and even today Chinese people can consider themselves Confucians and Taoists--at the same time!
Aside from the general assumption that each of these were parts of some larger whole, Confucianism and Taoism share at least two other things. One is that both use some parts the Five Chinese Classics (I Ching, History, Odes, Spring and Autumn Annals, and Rites), although for the Taoists only the I Ching is important. The other common feature, very different from many of our assumptions about religion, is that both are primarily if not exclusively concerned with how to live in this world, and pay little or no attention to what happens after death.
This omission was one of the factors that helped to promote the popularity of Buddhism, which first arrived in China via the Silk Road in the first century CE, and took several centuries to become established. The Buddhist world view had a well-developed picture of the afterlife, as well as rites for saving the souls of the departed, or at least ameliorating their suffering. This worldview (when combined with the Chinese cultural stress on filial piety, which could now continue after the death of one's parents) provided a ready niche through which Buddism could find some acceptance. For some time Buddhism was accepted as one more way of thinking that could complement both Confucianism and Taoism (the so-called "three teachings" notion), but as an "alien" (non-Chinese) worldview Buddhism could never fully overcome Chinese ethnocentrism, even though it gradually acculturated to the Chinese worldview. One classical example of this is the Confucian scholar Han Yu's Attack on Buddhism (819 CE), which reflected many of these cultural suspicions.
All of these religious currents were eventually transmitted from China to Japan, reflecting China's historical position as East Asia's most developed civilization--indeed, the earliest cultural transmissions to Japan included things as basic as the notion of writing. Japan's first introduction to Buddhism came via a kingdom in present-day Korea, but around 800 CE the Japanese government sent several groups of Buddhist monks for formal study in China. The Confucian stress on duties toward family and community resonated strongly with Japanese values, and found a strong expression in public life. The strongest remnant of the Daost tradition in Japan is the persistent attention to the calendar, with some days deemed luckier and unluckier than others. The religious ideas in all of these communities changed in Japan over time, partly through their interaction with Japan's indigenous religious tradition, Shinto ("the way of the kami), and partly through the well-known Japanese cultural tendency to adapt and "naturalize" alien cultural traditions.
Confucianism
The origins of Confucianism go back to the Analects, the sayings attributed to Confucius (551-479 BCE), and to ancient commentaries, including that of Mencius. In its early form (before the 3rd century BCE) Confucianism was primarily a system of ethical precepts for the proper management of society. It envisaged human beings as essentially social creatures bound to their fellows by jen, a term often rendered as "humanity," or "human-kind-ness." Jen is expressed through the five relations--parent and child (by far the most important), sovereign and subject, elder and younger brother, husband and wife, and friend and friend. In all these relationships (except for friends) the first member of the pair has higher status. Confucian ideology assumes that such hierarchy is necessary for society to run smoothly, but stresses the obligations that EACH member of this pair has toward the other (thus children must obey their parents, but parents must also care for their children). The relations are made to function smoothly by adhering to li, a term denoting a combination of etiquette and ritual. Correct conduct, however, proceeds not through compulsion, but through a sense of virtue inculcated by observing suitable models of deportment.
The most prominent model was Confucius himself, who, after a brief and largely unsuccessful career in government, spent most of his life as a teacher. The Confucian picture of human beings assumes an almost unlimited capacity for self-development and self-transformation, primarily through the medium of learning. Confucians characterize learning as either Elementary Learning (directed by others, and largely concerned with socialization) or as Great Learning, in which the person takes conscious responsibility for self-development. Hard work and persistence are necessary to bring this to fruition, although in theory the process never ends--to the end of his life Confucius spoke of himself not as a teacher, but as a learner. He was also a strong and consistent voice for ethical and moral action--one does the right thing because it is right, and not because it brings some sort of benefit--and his sayings frequently contrast the character and attitude of "noble" versus "small" people (given the prevailing social attitudes of his time he would have said "men" and meant "males," but we will trust that these principles are broad enough to apply to all.
As mentioned above, Confucius never fulfilled his desire to apply his ideas in government service, and could have felt some sense of failure upon his death, especially since his most promising student predeceased him. Yet his ideas quickly gained social traction, perhaps because of he had portrayed them as traditionalism. Later figures began to elaborate on his ideas, particularly on the question of human nature, on which Confucius was largely silent. The two most important figures were Mencius (d. 289 BCE) and his younger contemporary Hsun Tzu (d. 220 BCE). Mencius took the position that human nature was fundamentally good, although he admitted that it could be perverted by bad models and training. His most famous illustration proving this is that of a young child in danger of falling into a well. Mencius argues that every person would naturally feel concern for this child, and would try to prevent it from harm. Like all Confucians Mencius believes in the power of education to impart moral learning, but in light of his optimistic assessment of human nature education simply draws out and refines the good qualities that are already present. Hsun Tzu takes the opposite stance, and the title of one his most famous essays is "Human nature is Evil." His point here is not that human beings are naturally bad, but they are naturally self-centered, and that this can only be overcome through training and discipline. He gives the example of a father and his sons who come home exhausted after a day walking in the rain. Because of their training the sons attend to their father's needs first, rather than simply taking care of themselves. If anything, Hsun Tzu lays even greater stress on education than Mencius, because for Hsun Tzu this is the only things that can prevent society from descending into savagery and barbarism.
Confucianism in China often had to contend with other religious systems, notably Taoism and Buddhism, and at times suffered a marked decline, especially from the 3rd to the 7th cent CE. It was not until the Sung dynasty (960-1279), with the emergence of neo-Confucianism, that Confucianism became the dominant ideology among educated Chinese. The most important Neo-Confucian thinker was Chu Hsi (1130-1200), whose teachings stressed the hierarchical political and social vision of the early Confucian teachings. The overthrow of the Manchu Dynasty (1911-12) of the monarchy, with which Confucianism had been closely identified, led to the disintegration of Confucian institutions and a decline in Confucian traditions, a process accelerated by the 1949 Communist revolution. Even though at times the Communist regime has officially condemned it, certain Confucian values--the importance of family, duty, hard work, and education--have become permanently embedded in Chinese culture.
Taoism (Daoism)
The philosophical roots of Taoism stem largely from the Tao Te Ching/Daodejing, a text traditionally ascribed to the sage Lao Tzu (Laozi) but probably written by a number of people in the mid-3rd century BCE. In its most basic sense, the Tao is the way the universe functions, the path (Chin. tao=path) taken by natural events. It is characterized by spontaneous creativity, and by regular alternations of phenomena (such as day following night, or the succession of the seasons)) that proceed without effort. Effortless action may be illustrated by the conduct of water, which unresistingly accepts the lowest level and yet wears away the hardest substance. In order to follow the Human beings, following the Tao, must abjure all striving and act spontaneously and naturally. The ideal state of being, fully attainable only by mystical contemplation, is simplicity and freedom from desire, comparable to that of an infant or an "uncarved block." Both are completely unformed, and thus have limitless potential; both also exist in their unaltered, natural state (this is in sharp contrast to the Confucian stress on learning and self-development). Taoist political doctrines reflect this quietistic philosophy; the ruler's duty is to impose a minimum of government, while protecting his people from experiencing material wants or strong passions. The social virtues expounded by Confucius were condemned as symptoms of excessive government and disregard of effortless action.
Second only to Lao Tzu as an exponent of philosophical Taoism was Chuang Tzu/Zhuangzi, who authored brilliant satirical essays. He differed sharply from Lao Tzu on the question of political involvement, which Chuang Tzu deemed totally incompatible with the Tao, and to be avoided at all costs. Chuang Tzu text also spends considerable time questioning the validity of various forms of knowledge, to show that judgments such as 'useful" and "useless" are matters of opinion and perspective. In one of his most famous examples a carpenter dismisses a massive tree as "useless" because the timber was good for nothing, only to have a dream that night in which the tree spirit pointed out that from the tree's standpoint such "uselessness" was extremely useful, since it ensured a long life for the tree.
Later Taoism, sometimes called "religious Taoism," emphasized the techniques for realizing the effects supposed to flow from the Tao, especially long life and physical immortality. The search for the elixir of life and the philosopher's stone stimulated the practice of alchemy and more indirectly the sciences. Religious Taoist priests went through a long period of training, often under the tutelage of their fathers or uncles, and served people as mediums, exorcists, and by performing elaborate rituals to ensure community health and prosperity.
By the 5th century CE, Taoism was a fully developed religious system with many features adopted from Mahayana Buddhism: a large pantheon (probably incorporating many local gods), monastic orders, and lay masters. Taoist ideals, particularly the stress on the natural and the unformed, had great influence on Chinese literature, painting, and calligraphy, and also played a significant role in the development of Ch`an (Zen) Buddhism. Since Taoism has provided the basis for many Chinese secret societies throughout history, the Communists officially proscribed it in the 1950s as a security measure, but it is still practiced to some degree in modern China, particularly at the local level.
Japanese Religion
As with many other island societies, Japan's relative isolation has produced a strong sense of national identity. The Japanese also have a cultural genius for appropriation and adaptation--taking elements from other cultures, adapting them into their own culture, and transforming them into something uniquely Japanese. As one of the only Asian countries never subject to European colonial domination--the other being Thailand--the Japanese also have a deeply rooted sense of cultural history and destiny. This took a dark turn after the Meiji Restoration in 1868, when the belief in Japan's cultural superiority promulgated by the State Shinto cult fueled an aggressive and expansionist foreign policy that led to World War II. Japan's utter defeat and widespread destruction in that war completely undermined that particular ideology, and when combined with broader demographic currents has had a great influence on religion in modern Japan.
Japanese religion is first and foremost an expression of Japanese culture, and Japanese people are religious in a way that reflects that culture. In fact, many modern Japanese claim that they are not "religious." This is because the Japanese word for "religion," shukyo, has the combined meaning of 'sect' and "teaching"--indicating membership in a particular group and exclusive loyalty to a particular teaching. This particular definition fits Christianity quite well, as well as some of the Japanese New Religions, so when other Japanese say that they are not religious, what they are saying is that they are not "religious" in the sort of way in which these groups are. Religion in Japan tends to be situational, in that people perform certain sorts of socially expected actions at the appropriate mandated times. Thus, these "non-religious" Japanese will flock to their local Shinto shrines to mark the beginning of the New Year or an annual festival, or present newborn children at these same shrines to put them under the protection of the deities (kami), or go to temple in order to get a protective amulet for "traffic-safety" or "exam-success," or call the family Buddhist priest to perform the funeral for a deceased relative. In performing these actions the people themselves might describe them as "traditional" or "cultural" rather than "religious," but this takes us back to understanding what those speakers mean by "religion" (as a sect and a teaching). Seen from an outside perspective these acts are clearly religious, but religious in a particularly Japanese way--one that puts far more emphasis on action than on belief, one that reflects concerns for family and community well-being, and one in which one turns to the "gods" in times of trouble to seek help with personal or family problems, or to give blessings and success at a transitional *and thus vulnerable) moment in one's life.
Religion in Japan has historically combined many different religious strains. The indigenous religious tradition, Shinto, is usually translated as "the way of the gods"--the affix "to" is cognate with Chinese "Tao" (way), whereas Shin comes from the Chinese shen (spirit). In Japan the name for these sorts of "gods" and "spirits" is kami, a word that connotes some sort of awe-inspiring and thus divine presence, but exists in a world in which there are many other such presences. Some kami are more important than others-among the most celebrated being Omaterasu Omi-kami, the Sun Goddess. Other kami function as regional or local deities responsible for the well-being of a particular locale. Prominent natural features such as mountains and waterfalls and trees can be identified as kami, as can particularly charismatic human beings. The category is extremely fluid and reflects human responses to numinous experiences. In premodern Japan, Shinto was primarily a local phenomenon intended to ensure human well-being and prosperity through invoking the protection of the kami, and many festivals were connected with important points in the agricultural year, to ensure its success. Shinto has historically been associated with life, birth, and growth--and seeks to promote all of those things, both for individuals and for the larger communtiy; the flip side of this is that sickness, blood, and death are all seen as polluting and taboo. The earliest Japanese literature, the Kojiki, describes this notion of the struggle between life and death, with life ultimately prevailing. When one deity says that she will cause 100 people to die every day, her husband counters that he will cause 150 to be born. Japanese recognize that life is fragile and transitory, and that death is inevitable for individuals, but at the same time it affirms the primacy of life.
Buddhism first came to Japan from the kingdom of Paekche (in modern Korea) in the mid-6th century. The Korean king sent the Japanese emperor an image of the Buddha and some Buddhist scriptures, and intimated that these were powerful sacred objects that could bring great blessings. When initial concerns regarding the potential jealousy of the native kami were allayed--in part by identifying Buddhas with kami, and kami with Buddhas--Buddhism was accepted into Japan. For the first six centuries it remained largely associated with the aristocrats and elites--the rulers built Buddhist temples to promote peace and prosperity in the country, and sent scholars to China at government expense so that they could be properly trained, and thus bring the genuine teaching back to Japan. It was not until the 13th century that Buddhism became a mass religious movement, primarily that of the Pure Land school through Honen and his disciple Shinran, though an opposing school based on the worship of the Lotus Sutra was propagated by Nichiren. Zen Buddhism is popularly associated with Japan and has a long history there, but was largely an elite phenomenon--sometimes associated with the samurai in premodern times--and has never had significant numbers of adherents.
During the Tokugawa Shogunate's "closed country" era (1633-1868), local Buddhist temples were turned into an active arm of the state--and were responsible for recording births, marriages, and deaths within their jurisdiction. Every citizen had to be affiliated with a local Buddhist temple, and affirm this with an oath of allegiance every year. This was done to uproot and destroy the influence of Christianity, which had made significant inroads in the late 16th and early 17th centuries, and which the Japanese ruling class saw not just as a strategy to help bring the country under European control, but also as a subversive social influence on the lower classes. This "burueacratization" of the temples did little to promote religious fervor, and Buddhist practice during this time was largely stagnant, except for some exceptional religious figures such as Hakuin, and literary figures such as Basho. Then as now the single most important function for Japanese Buddhism was taking care of the dead--transforming them from potentially malevolent spirits and ghosts to benifiect and kindly ancestors. Given Buddhist cosmological ideas about reincarnation, and Shinto's avoidance for anything connected with death and decay, this was a ready-made cultural niche for Buddhists. They have been described as "Japan's funeral directors"--to be called upon when needed to perform a necessary service (as one calls a plumber to repair a broken pipe), but otherwise largely unconnected with one's everyday life.
Japan's recent religious history is dominated by the consequences of the 1868 elevation of State Shinto as the national religion. State Shinto drew from older Shinto themes, particularly the notion of the divinity of the Emperor and the uniqueness of Japanese culture, to craft a narrative stressing hypernationalism and Japanese cultural supriority, both of which obliged the Japanese to rule over other inferior groups. Ordinary citizens were called to be obedient to the state and to sacrifice themselves when necessary to promote the state's goals and welfare. Such messages began innocuously in the Imperial Rescript on Education in 1890, but later took a sinister turn, as exemplified by the Kokutai ni Hongi ("Cardinal Principles of the National Entity of Japan'), which from 1934 became a mandatory element in the school curriculum. As an arm of the government that provided its ruling ideology, State Shinto was funded and supported by the Japanese government. This changed when Shinto was disestablished after the end of World War II by the so-called "Shinto Directive," which prohibited government connections or financial support for any religious group or organization, and expressly prohibited certain ideological ideas associated with State Shinto.
The period since 1945 has seen immense social change, and Japanese religion has reflected these. After the defeat in the war, many Japanese were deeply disillusioned, and correspondingly suspicious about organized religion and its power to manipulate people. This period has also seen a significant demographic shift in which Japan's population went from being primarily rural to being primarily urban. With this demographic shift festivals and practices connected to rural and agricultural life have become less commonly celebrated, since these events are less present in people's lived realities. Finally, about 25% of Japanese people belong to one of the so-called "New Religions," a catch-all term for new religious movements (though some of them, such as Tenrikyo, have existed for over 150 years). The New Religions tend to emphasize healing and other worldly benefits as a way to attract members to the group; their religious ideas are often syncretic and draw from a variety of sources, including Buddhism, Christianity, and Shinto, as well as disciplines such as philosophy and psychology. Some groups demand exclusive loyalty, but others allow multiple allegiances; they tend to attract people through charismatic leaders and promises of worldly benefits, and have equally high attrition when members find something different.
People in modern Japan believe all sorts of things about religion, and generally have a "live and let live" ethos with regard to others (even though they may consider some of the New Religions a little wacky, though essentially harmless). Whatever their beliefs, however, there is strong social pressure on the need to fulfill social obligations--to the family, community, and kami--which means that the people responsible for taking action at appropriate moments and in particular situations will fulfill that responsibility, religiously.